Native Plants and Ferns

of the Hawaiian Islands

Botanical Descriptions and Traditional Uses 

Key to Species Classifications:

Native—Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands without the aid of humans (indigenous), or evolved in the Hawaiian Islands (endemic).

Indigenous—Native to the Hawaiian Islands and other places.

Endemic—Evolved in the Hawaiian Islands from an indigenous species; native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else.

Polynesian Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers.

Post-Contact Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands after Western contact (1778).

Naturalized—Not native to the Hawaiian Islands, but now growing wild in the Hawaiian Islands.

‘A‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa)

Common Name: Hawaiian Hopseed Bush

Indigenous

Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family

Also known as mānele, ‘a‘ali‘i may grow as a small shrub or may reach a height of more than 33 ft (10 m). The plant has spatula-shaped leaves that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide by 4 in (10 cm) long, and may be pointed or blunt. ‘A‘ali‘i prefers relatively dry habitat at middle to low elevations,

The yellow-brown wood of ‘a‘ali‘i, and the dark heartwood, are exceptionally hard and long lasting. In ancient Hawai‘i, the wood was used for posts to build houses and for making weapons, including spears.

‘A‘ali‘i is also referred to in Hawaiian as ‘a‘ali‘i kū makani, which means “‘a‘ali‘i standing in wind,” suggesting the plant’s ability to grow in the face of strong winds.

An ancient proverb states: “He ‘a‘ali‘i ku makani mai au; ‘a‘ohe makani nana e kula‘i.” (“I am a wind-resisting ‘a‘ali‘i; no gale can push me over.”), which is explained to mean: “A boast meaning ‘I can hold my own even in the face of difficulties.’ The ‘a‘ali‘i bush can stand the worst of gales, twisting and bending but seldom breaking off or falling over.”[i]

‘A‘ali‘i is considered sacred to the hula goddesses, Laka. Strung into lei, the light red, reddish-purple, yellow or brown fruit capsules of ‘a‘ali‘i were traditionally woven with ‘a‘ali‘i leaves and ferns.

‘A‘ali’s fruit capsules are about ½-inch (13 mm) long with two to four winged angles, and are divided into 2 to 4 cells. Each cell contains one or two ovate seeds.

The crushed leaves of ‘a‘ali‘i had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, such as easing the irritation of rashes. The fruit capsules were crushed and boiled to create a red dye for kapa (tapa) barkcloth.

‘A‘li‘i is also a primary food source for the larvae of the Blackburn butterfly (Udara blackburni), one of just two native butterfly species in the Hawaiian Islands.

[Photograph: ‘A‘ali‘i]

A‘e (Sapindus saponaria)

Common Name: Soapberry

Indigenous

Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family

Also referred to as mānele, a‘e usually grows as a small tree, but may reach more than 80 feet (24 m) in height, particularly at higher elevations. A‘e has a whitish-colored trunk, and compound, light green leaves with three to six mostly paired leaflets.

Each leaflet is about 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long. Mature leaves take on a slightly winged shape, curving at the leaf’s axis.

A‘e also produces clusters of 5-parted chartreuse flowers at the ends of the branches, and brown-skinned fruits that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) in diameter. ‘A‘e’s fruits may be round or have two or three lobes.

The fruits contain a soapy, yellowish pulp as well as a seed that is about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The round, black to brown, shiny seeds of a‘e may be strung into lei. (See Seed Lei in Chapter 3.)

A‘e prefers dry, middle elevation habitat, particularly on the volcanic slopes of the island of Hawai‘i. The Hawaiian term, ‘a‘e, also refers to particular species in the genus Zanthoxylum that were used in ancient Hawai‘i to make digging sticks and spears. The fruit has also been used to make a soap substitute.

[Photograph: A‘e]

‘Ahakea (Bobea species)

Endemic

Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family

‘Ahakea refers to various endemic Hawaiian species of trees in the Bobea genus.

Growing in mountain habitats, ‘ahakea has oblong, yellowish-green leaves that are medium-sized or small, with small, tubular flowers that are greenish or white. The trees also produce small, juicy fruits that are purplish or black in color. Each fruit may have from 2 to 12 elongated seeds.

The hard, yellow wood of ‘ahakea was used by ancient Hawaiians to make the rims of canoes as well as canoe paddles and poi boards. Modern canoe pale (gunwales) are sometimes painted yellow in imitation of the color of the traditional ‘ahakea wood.

‘Ahakea also had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a preparation that was used to treat mouth sores (see Kukui). The mashed bark of ‘ahakea was heated with water to provide a liquid used to cleanse sores (see ‘Ulu), and as part of a treatment used to clean the blood (see Pōhuehue).

The Bobea genus consists of four species, all referred to as ‘ahakea and all are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.

These species include: B. brevipes, known as ‘ahakea lau li‘i, growing up to 33 feet (10 m) tall on O‘ahu and Kaua‘i; B. elatior, known as ‘ahakea lau nui and growing up to 49 feet (15 m) tall on O‘ahu, Kaua‘i, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui and rarely on Hawai‘i Island; B. sandwicensis growing up to 33 feet (10 m) tall on O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Maui and Lāna‘i; and B. timonioides, growing up to 33 feet (10 m) tall on Hawai‘i Island, O‘ahu, Maui and Kaua‘i.

[Photograph: ‘Ahakea]

‘Āheahea (Chenopodium oahuense)

Endemic

Family: Chenopodiaceae—Goosefoot Family

‘Āheahea is an endemic Hawaiian shrub, sometimes growing tree-like, with stems reaching heights of up to 10 feet (3 meters).

Āheahea’s leaves are fairly thick and fleshy, and about 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 8 cm) long and ½ to1½ inches (1.3 to 3.8 cm) wide. The leaves grow alternate to one another and are fairly thick and fleshy.

‘Āheahea’s small, symmetrical flowers grow in panicles (branched inflorescences, or flower clusters), and are without petals. The fruit is a small, dark brown nut.

The leaves and the tips of the plant were traditionally wrapped in leaves of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and then cooked over hot coals to be eaten as greens. The wood of ‘āheahea was used to construct composite fishhooks, particularly makau manō (shark hooks), which had bone points that were lashed to the wood using cordage made from olonā (Touchardia latifolia).

‘Āheahea grows in dry forests as well as coastal areas and subalpine shrubland at elevations up to about 8,200 feet (2,500 m) on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Kaho‘olawe, as well as on several of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

A related non-native species, Chenopodium murale, is also referred to as ‘āheahea and now naturalized on all the main Hawaiian Islands.

[Photograph: ‘Āheahea]

‘Āhinahina (Argyroxiphium sandwicense)

Common Name: Silversword

Endemic

Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family

[Illustration: Silversword atop Haleakalā]

The silversword is easily recognized by its basal rosette of long silvery, sword-like leaves coated with silver-colored hairs. Adapted to high elevation, desert-like habitats in the Hawaiian Islands, the silversword’s stiff, reflective leaves give the plant a shiny, silver appearance.

Hairs on the plant’s leaves capture moisture, which is often visible in the early morning as glistening dew. The leaves also contain a gel similar to aloe, which helps the silversword retain water.

The silversword’s basal rosette is about 24 inches (60 cm) around, and the plant’s height may exceed 6 feet (1.8 m). The silversword matures in about 7 to 30 years, and then a stem may rise more than 9 ft (2.7 m) up from the plant’s center, sprouting 100 to 500 pink to purplish daisy-like flowers that are embedded in insect-trapping sticky tissues.

Generally it is the plants that are more than five years old that send up a tall flowerhead from the basal rosette, and this occurs between July and September. After flowering, the plant dies.

There are two subspecies of ‘āhinahina, and both came near to extinction due to rampant destruction by goats (which ate the plants). Humans also contributed to the demise of the plants, pulling them up from the ground to watch them roll down the volcanic slopes.

A. sandwicense ssp. sandwicense (the Mauna Kea silversword) was once common at upper elevations of Mauna Kea, but now is an endangered species, with its range restricted to the Wailuku basin area at an elevation of 9,350 feet (2,850 m).

There were approximately 500 plants in 1999. A. sandwicense ssp. macrocephalum (the Haleakalā silversword) is found only on the upper elevations of Maui’s Haleakalā Volcano, and is listed as a threatened species. There were approximately 65,000 plants in 1999.

‘Āhinahina evolved to tolerate high the alpine cinder desert habitats of Mauna Kea, Haleakalā and East Maui, where temperatures on the lava rock may exceed 130º Fahrenheit in summer and reach extremely low temperatures in winter.

Other Hawaiian names for ‘āhinahina include ‘āhina, and hinahina. Related species include the endangered species A. kauense, also known as the Ka‘ū silversword, and A. caliginis, also called the ‘Eke silversword.

The ‘Eke silversword is endemic to West Maui’s ‘Eke and Pu‘ukukui summit bogs at elevations from 4,400 to 5,400 feet (1,350 to 1,650 m).

Argyroxiphium sandwicense subspecies sandwicense (Mauna Kea silversword) is an endangered species found only on Hawai‘i Island. Argyroxiphium sandwicense subspecies macrocephalum (Haleakalā silversword) is listed as threatened, and is found only on Maui.

Also in the Argyroxiphium genus are the greenswords, which are rare endemic plants living only in Maui’s cloud forest habitats from 4,000 to 6,700 feet (1,200 to 2,050 m), such as the bogs at the 6,100 foot (1,850 m) elevation on East Maui and the Violet Lake bog on West Maui.

Greenswords resemble silverswords, but greenswords have adapted to wet habitats and don’t have the succulent and hairy leaves of the silversword. The flowerheads of greenswords sprout dozens of yellow daisy-like blooms, flowering between June and January.

Though two greensword species are known—A. grayanum and A. virescens—the latter is believed to be extinct, having last been seen on Maui in 1945.

[Photograph: Silversword]

‘Ahu‘awa (Cyperus javanicus)

Indigenous

Family: Cyperaceae—Sedge Family

‘Ahu‘awa is a sedge that grows usually from 1 to 4 feet (30 to 120 cm) tall. Growing from the base of the plant is a cluster of narrow leaves that are pale green in color and rather rough.

A tall, slender stem rises up from the base, and bears at its tip a radiating inflorescence (flower cluster) measuring from 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 cm) with five or six bracts (modified leaves).

‘Ahu‘awa prefers moist, lowland habitat. It is often found in marshes, along streams, near taro patches and in rocky as well as grassy coastal areas.

‘Ahu‘awa was used in ancient Hawai‘i to strain ‘awa (Piper methysticum, kava) and numerous medicinal formulations (see Hau, ‘Awa, Kukui, Pia, and ‘Ulu sections). The stems of ‘ahu‘awa were pounded to reveal the fibers, which were then used for straining. An ancient proverb states: “O Honu‘apo aku no ia o kāhi o ka ‘ahu‘awa.” (“That is Hono‘apo where the ‘ahu‘awa grows.”), which is explained to mean, “A Ka‘ū saying about disappointment. The ‘ahu‘awa was much used as fiber for straining ‘awa. A play on hoka (to strain, to be disappointed).”[ii]

‘Ahu‘awa also had various other uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including for use in making large-meshed nets used to catch sea turtles.

Another related coarse sedge that the Hawaiians called ‘ahu‘awa is C. hypochlorus, which is very similar to C. javanicus. C. hypochlorus is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, while C. javanicus may be found in other places, such as Asia and tropical Africa.

According the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[iii] ‘ahu‘awa was classified as Mariscus javanicus. In the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[iv] it was determined that the Mariscus genus is no longer recognized, and all of the Hawaiian species formerly in that genus should instead be placed in the Cyperus genus (thus ‘ahu‘awa is now classified as Cyperus javanicus).

On the 3/05/2002 federal endangered species list, the genus was still listed as Mariscus, with two species endangered (M. fauriei and M. pennatiformis).

[Photograph: ‘Ahu‘awa]

‘Aiakanēnē (Coprosma ernodeoides)

Endemic

Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family

‘Aiakanēnē is a woody, prostrate shrub with stems up to about 10 feet (3 m). The stems may root at the nodes, and the plant produces many lateral branches ascending up to about 8 inches (20 cm).

The tiny, narrow leaves of ‘aiakanēnē are crowded together, and the small fruits are glossy black and berry-like. The plant also bears small, tubular flowers.

The literal meaning of ‘aiakanēnē is “food of the nēnē goose,” though another traditional Hawaiian name of this endemic Hawaiian plant is kūkaenēnē, which literally means “goose dung.”

The bark of ‘aiakanēnē’s inner stem was used to produce a yellow dye for kapa (tapa) barkcloth, while the plant’s fruit was used to produce a purple to black dye.

‘Aiakanēnē grows in open areas, including lava flows and subalpine woodlands at elevations from 4,000 to 8,500 feet (1,220 to 2,590 m).

[Photograph: ‘Aiakanēnē]

‘Aiea (Nothocestrum species)

Endemic

Family: Solanaceae—Nightshade Family

‘Aiea commonly grows as a shrub or small tree, but may reach heights up to 33 feet (10 m) tall with soft wood and oblong or ovate leaves.

Growing at middle to upper elevations in various dry to wet forest habitats, ‘aiea bears yellowish (sometimes greenish), tubular flowers. ‘Aiea also produces fleshy berries that vary in color from whitish (rarely) to yellowish-orange to red and rarely white, with brownish, hairy sepals that may be nearly as long as the floral tube.

There are four different species of ‘aiea in the Nothocestrum genus that are referred to by the Hawaiian word ‘aiea, and all are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.

The four species of ‘aiea are: N. breviflorum, an endangered species growing on the island of Hawai‘i; N. latifolium, growing on Lāna‘i, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu and Moloka‘i; N. longifolium, growing on all of the main Hawaiian Islands with the exceptions of Kaho‘olawe and Ni‘ihau; and N. peltatum, an extremely rare endangered species found only on Kaua‘i.

In ancient Hawai‘i, the wood of ‘aiea was used for making thatching sticks, pale (gunwales) of canoes, and for fire-making.

[Photograph: ‘Aiea]

‘Ākala (Rubus species)

Common Name: Hawaiian Raspberry

Endemic

Family: Rosaceae—Rose Family

The rose-colored 1 inch (2.5 cm) diameter fruits of the ‘ākala are an example of the tendency of island seeds and fruits to be exceptionally large.

The berries of ‘ākala vary from red to dark purple in color (rarely yellow), and are used to make a tasty jam, though the ‘ākala berry is not as sweet as common raspberries.

The fruits of ‘ākala were used by ancient Hawaiians to make a pink dye for their kapa barkcloth. ‘Ākala means “pink,” and refers to the pink juice of the berry.

The Hawaiian term ‘ākala refers to two endemic Hawaiian species, Rubus hawaiensis and Rubus macraei. According to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[v]

Rubus macraei was a derivative of (evolved from) Rubus hawaiensis, but recent research has shown that the two species are the result of independent colonizations in the Hawaiian Islands. This was documented in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i.[vi] The fruits of both species are edible, as described above.

Rubus hawaiensis grows erect with prickly stems up to 15 feet (4.6 m) in height, with leaves that are about 6 inches (15 cm) long, sometimes comprised of three leaflets, but sometimes merely three-lobed or undivided.

R. macraei has similar leaves, but is more of a trailing shrub, with reddish-yellow hairs and reddish prickles on the stems. The flower of both species is ½-inch (13 mm) long with a 5-parted calyx (the outer row of the flower’s parts) and dark red to pinkish-purple rose-like petals.

Rubus hawaiensis prefers moist, middle elevation forests and sub-alpine woodlands on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, Moloka‘i and Kaua‘i, and Moloka‘i. Rubus macraei is less common, growing on Hawai‘i Island and East Maui preferring steep, rocky areas as well as wet forests and subalpine shrubland.

Rubus macraei is the result of a separate colonization from Rubus hawaiensis. The Hawaiian term ‘ākala also refers to the introduced thimbleberry, R. rosifolius.

[Photograph: ‘Ākala (Rubus hawaiensis)]

‘Ākia (Wikstroemia species)

Endemic

Family: Thymelaeaceae—‘Ākia Family

The Hawaiian term ‘ākia refers to 12 endemic Hawaiian species in the Wikstroemia genus. ‘Ākia is a sprawling endemic shrub with small, yellow-green, tubular, 4-parted flowers. The tiny flowers have a heady scent, and grow in cluster on the leaf axils or at the branch tips. The branches of ‘ākia are jointed, and repeatedly fork. The plant has small oval leaves.

‘Ākia also produces fleshy one-seeded fruits that are less than ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The small berries may be yellow, red, or orangish in color. In ancient Hawai‘i the berries were strung into lei known as lei ‘ākia ha‘a ha‘a. (See ‘Ākia in Seed Lei section, Chapter 3.)

W. oahuensis, which is mentioned in connection with ‘anā‘anā (evil sorcery involving incantations and prayers), is found in mesic (moist) to wet forest areas, as well as on rocky ridges and in bogs.

The roots, leaves and bark of W. oahuensis provided fibers that had various uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including cordage. The pounded bark, roots, and leaves of some ‘ākia species were used for poisoning (stupefying) fish (so they were easier to catch), and as part of a preparation for treating bad cases of hānō (asthma). (See Niu.)

The Hawaiian term ‘ākia refers to 12 endemic Hawaiian species in the Wikstroemia genus. ‘Ākia grows in a variety of Hawaiian habitats, particularly in dry habitat at low elevations.

[Photograph: ‘Ākia]

‘Akoko (Chamaesyce species)

Common Name: Spurge

Endemic

Family: Euphorbiaceae—Spurge Family

[Illustration: ‘Akoko]

‘Akoko is a Hawaiian term referring to various endemic shrubs and trees in the Chamaesyce genus, which grow in a variety of Hawaiian habitats, mostly along the coast and lower foothills.

Koko is the Hawaiian term for blood, and ‘akoko refers to the “blood colored” fruiting capsules that grow at the tips of the branches, and may be red, green or pinkish in color. The fruit capsules are 3-angled and up to 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.

The dark green, shiny leaves may also show a red color, particularly when damaged or just before they drop from the plant. This is particularly true of C. degeneri, a low-lying sprawling variety of ‘akoko that is commonly known as the beach spurge, and grows in coastal areas on the main Hawaiian Islands, including on sand dunes. At the branch tips and leaf axils are small yellow flowers.

The round, succulent leaves of ‘akoko may be 1 to 5 inches (2.5 to 13 cm) long by about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide, growing opposite one another. The characteristic milky sap of ‘akoko was an ingredient in paint used on the hulls of canoes.

‘Akoko also had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i. C. multiformis was the particular variety used in a preparation to treat general debility, and the buds and leaves were also chewed for this same purpose.

C. multiformis grows on the leeward side of Hawai‘i Island, and also on Maui, Moloka‘i, and O‘ahu, at elevations from 650 to 1,600 feet (200 to 500 m).

The most widespread species of ‘akoko is C. celastroides, found in coastal areas and up to 5,900 feet (1,800 m) on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, as well as on Nihoa. Other Hawaiian names for ‘akoko include ēkoko, koko, and kōkōmālei.

Four Chamaesyce species are on the endangered species list, including C. deppeana (O‘ahu); C. halemanui (Kaua‘i); C. kuwaleana (O‘ahu); C. rockii (O‘ahu); and C. herbstii (O‘ahu).

Two Chamaesyce varieties are also endangered: C. celastroides var. kaenana (O‘ahu); and C. skottsbergii var. skottsbergii (Moloka‘i).

[Photograph: ‘Akoko]

‘Āla‘a (Pouteria sandwicensis)

Endemic

Family: Sapotaceae—Sapodilla Family

‘Āla‘a is a large tree that prefers dry, mid-elevation habitats and may reach heights of more than 66 feet (20 m). The oval-shaped, green leaves are smooth and shiny.

The leaves of ‘āla‘a are about 1 to 6 inches (2.5 to 15 cm) long by ¾ to 3 inches (2 to 7.5 cm) wide, and bronze-colored on the underside, with a prominent center vein. ‘Āla‘a produces pear-shaped fruit that is yellow-orange to purplish-black in color and may be up to 2 inches (5 cm) long.

In ancient Hawai‘i, the hard wood of ‘āla‘a was used for house construction and for the pale (gunwales) of canoes. The wood was also used to make handles for ‘ō‘ō (digging sticks) and ihe (spears).

An ancient proverb states: “Ke wela nei no ka ‘ili i ka maka ihe.” (“The skin still feels the heated sting of the spear point.”), which is “said when one is still at war. First uttered by Keaweama‘uhili to Kahāhana.”[vii]

The sticky, milky sap of ‘āla‘a was used as birdlime to capture birds, which were sought after for food and for their plumage, which was used to make various items of Hawaiian featherwork, including ‘ahu ‘ula (royal capes and cloaks), mahiole (feather-crested helmets), kāhili (royal feather standards) and other symbols of chiefly rank.

[Photograph: ‘Āla‘a]

‘Ala‘ala wai nui (Peperomia species)

Common Name: Forest Peppers

Endemic; Indigenous

Family: Piperaceae—Pepper Family

‘Ala‘ala wai nui is a Hawaiian term that refers to all species in the genus Peperomia, a group of small fleshy, forest herbs that prefer moist habitat. ‘Ala‘ala wai nui often has a reddish stem, and produces rounded fruits on upright green spikes, which may also display hundreds of small flowers.

There are 25 native species (from three or four independent colonizations), mostly endemic to the Hawaiian Islands except for P. leptostachya and P. tetraphylla, which are indigenous. There is also an introduced species, P. pellucida, which is now naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.

The leaves and stems of ‘ala‘ala wai nui were used in ancient Hawai‘i to produce a dye with a grayish-green color, referred to in Hawaiian as ‘āhiahia or puahia.

Specific varieties of ‘ala‘ala wai nui, particularly ‘ala‘ala wai nui pehu (pehu means “swollen”) were used by ancient Hawaiians in various medicinal formulations, including: a treatment for chest pain (see Hala); a treatment for ‘ea (thrush) (see ‘Ilima); a preparation to ease a difficult childbirth (see Hala), and treatments for hānō (asthma). (See Mai‘a, Kī and ‘Uhaloa sections.)

The succulent forest herbs of ‘ala‘ala wai nui are in the same family (Piperaceae) as the plant whose fruit is used to produce commercial pepper (Piper nigrum). This family also includes the Polynesian-introduced ‘awa (kava, P. methysticum).

[Photograph: ‘Ala‘ala wai nui]

Alahe‘e (Canthium odoratum)

Indigenous

Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family

Alahe‘e is a small tree or shrub reaching heights up to 20 feet (6 m). The leaves are oval, with a glossy upper surface. Fragrant white flowers grow at the branch tips. The flowers are about ¼-inch (6 mm) long, with four or five lobes. The black fruits of alahe‘e are about 1/3-inch (8.5 mm) long and grooved on the sides.

Alahe‘e prefers relatively dry habitat, including lava flow areas and dry shrubland, though it also may be found in wetter areas, such as O‘ahu’s Mount Ka‘ala, up to about 3,000 feet (900 m).

Along with uhiuhi (Caesalpinia kavaiensis), ‘ūlei (Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Hawaiian hawthorn), and kauila (Colubrina oppositifolia), alahe‘e was used by the early Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands to make agricultural tools, such as ‘ō‘ō (digging sticks).

Alahe‘e was also used to make adze blades (also often made from stone) that were used to cut softer woods, including kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut) and wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis, coral tree).

Alahe‘e reportedly had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, and the leaves were used to create a black dye. Recent botanical studies may eventually place C. odoratum in the Psydrax genus, and it is already classified by some sources as Psydrax odorata. Alahe‘e is also known by the Hawaiian terms walahe‘e and ‘ōhe‘e.

[Photograph: Alahe‘e]

Aloalo (Hibiscus species)

Common Name: Hibiscus

Endemic; Indigenous

Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family

Aloalo is a general Hawaiian term for six species of native Hawaiian hibiscus: ma‘o hau hele (Hibiscus brackenridgei); ‘akiohala (Hibiscus furcellatus); koki‘o (Hibiscus kokio); Hibiscus clayi; koki‘o ke‘oke‘o (Hibiscus arnottianus, Hibiscus waimeae). Each of these six native aloalo species is described in more detail below.

Transient bloomers, the beautiful aloalo blossoms last only about one day. The aloalo flower consists of a 5-lobed cup with several bracts (modified leaves). Varieties of aloalo display various different colors.

The five petals of the flower blossom may be red, yellow, orange, white, or pink, sometimes with a darker area at the base of the petals. From the center of the flower there emerges a long staminal column with many stamens and a 5-lobed style. The plant also produces small fruit capsules, each containing about 15 or more seeds.

Ancient Hawaiians had various uses for aloalo, including a medicinal preparation that aided digestion. The hibiscus family, Malvaceae, also includes ma‘o (Gossypium sandvicense, Hawaiian cotton), as well as ‘ilima (Sida fallax), which is also O‘ahu’s official island emblem.

Today a fresh hibiscus flower is often used as a hair adornment, and said to signal that a person is looking for a mate if the flower is over the right ear, or that the person has already found a mate if the flower is over the left ear.

It should be noted that hau (Talipariti tiliaceum), a relatively common plant in the Hawaiian Islands, was considered one of seven native hibiscus species by the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[viii] and formerly classified as Hibiscus tiliaceus. However, the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[ix] reclassified the species as Talipariti tiliaceum, and it is considered indigenous, although there is a possibility that it is actually non-native, and a Polynesian-introduced species (see Hau).

The reclassification of hau—out of the Hibiscus genus—lowers the number of native Hawaiian hibiscus species to six.

Varieties of Native Hibiscus

The following are brief descriptions of the six native Hawaiian varieties of hibiscus:

· Ma‘o Hau Hele—Hawai‘i’s State Flower

Hibiscus brackenridgei, which has bright yellow flowers, is an endemic Hawaiian species known in Hawaiian as ma‘o hau hele. The leaves are maple-like.

Aloalo was named the official flower of the Territory of Hawai‘i by the Legislature in 1923. The Legislature didn’t specify any particular one of the many varieties of the hibiscus, however, which led to some confusion. The various colors and types were said by some to represent the unique ethnic mix of people in the Hawaiian Islands.

Eventually many people considered the native (endemic) red hibiscus (koki‘o, Hibiscus kokio) or the red Chinese species (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) to be the state flower. Hawai‘i’s State Legislature clarified the issue in 1988 when it named the native pua ma‘o hau hele (Hibiscus brackenridgei, yellow hibiscus), to be the official state flower. (See State of Hawai‘i in Island Emblems section, Chapter 3.) Hibiscus brackenridgei is on the federal endangered species list.

There are two subspecies of Hibiscus brackenridgei: H. b. subspecies brackenridgei (a shrub or small tree, found on Lāna‘i, Maui, Moloka‘i and Hawai‘i Island), and H. b. subspecies mokuleianus (a tree, found on Kaua‘i and O‘ahu.

The leaves of H. b. ssp. brackenridgei are rounder than H. b. ssp. mokuleianus, and have yellow veins, while H. b. ssp. mokuleianus leaves have pink veins. H. b. ssp. mokuleianus also has margins that are more serrated than H. b. ssp. brackenridgei. The branches of H. b. ssp. mokuleianus have tiny spines while H. b. ssp. brackenridgei does not have spiny branches.

A variety of H. b. ssp. brackenridgei was recently discovered in O‘ahu’s Mākua Valley having characteristics (e.g., pink veins) of H. b. ssp. mokuleianus. Botanists are currently deciding how to classify the plant.

[Photograph: Ma‘o hau hele (H. b. subspecies brackenridgei; H. b. subspecies mokuleianus]

· ‘Akiohala

Hibiscus furcellatus is an indigenous species with pinkish flowers. It is known by the Hawaiian term ‘akiohala.

[Photograph: ‘Akiohala]

· Koki‘o

Hibiscus kokio is the endemic Hawaiian red hibiscus species known as koki‘o.

Hibiscus kokio was known for the fine charcoal produced by its wood, and is also referred to in Hawaiian as koki‘o ‘ula‘ula (‘ula means “red”). The red hibiscus flowers were used by the ancient Hawaiians to create a red or pinkish-red dye. The flowers also had mild laxative properties.

Koki‘o usually reaches about 4 to 10 feet (1.2 to 3 m) high, and the flowers are about 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) in diameter. Different varieties and subspecies have slightly different features.

For example, H. k. variety pukooense has dark red flowers while the flowers of H. k. subspecies kahiliensis are bright pink. Fluorescent orange flowers are produced by H. k. subspecies st. johnianus.

[Photograph: Koki‘o]

· Hibiscus clayi

Hibiscus clayi is an endemic Hawaiian variety with red flowers similar to koki‘o (Hibiscus kokio), but with narrower leaves.

Hibiscus clayi grows on Kaua‘i in a region extending from the Anahola Mountains to Hāli‘i Valley and the Nounou Mountains. Hibiscus clayi is on the federal endangered species list.

[Photograph: Hibiscus clayi]

· Koki‘o Ke‘oke‘o

Hibiscus arnottianus, the endemic Hawaiian white hibiscus also referred to as koki‘o ke‘oke‘o.

Hibiscus arnottianus is found mostly on O‘ahu and known for its large white aromatic flowers (ke‘oke‘o means “white”). There are three subspecies of Hibiscus arnottianus, including subspecies arnottianus, immaculatus, and punaluuensis.

Hibiscus arnottianus subspecies immaculatus is on the endangered species list, found only on Moloka‘i. Hibiscus arnottianus subspecies immaculatus used to be common over large areas but has disappeared from much of its former habitat due to introduced species, (e.g., pigs, goats).

Hibiscus arnottianus subspecies immaculatus is now cultivated in many gardens due to the efforts of those trying to save Hibiscus arnottianus subspecies immaculatus from extinction. It has a white staminal column (unlike the other native white hibiscus) and the leaves are edged with rounded shallow teeth.

[Photograph: Koki‘o Ke‘oke‘o—Hibiscus arnottianus]

Hibiscus waimeae is endemic to Kaua‘i and known by the Hawaiian name koki‘o ke‘oke‘o. Also referred to by the Hawaiian term, koki‘o ke‘oke‘o, Hibiscus waimeae is similar to Hibiscus arnottianus, but generally has smaller leaves, and is endemic to Kaua‘i.

Hibiscus waimeae is a rare and endangered plant that may top 33 ft (10 m) in height, with gray bark and white flower petals that open in the morning and then become more pinkish by afternoon.

There are two subspecies of Hibiscus waimeae: H. w. subspecies hannerae (an endangered species found only in a few northwest Kaua‘i valleys, including Limahuli Valley and Hanakāpī‘ai Valley); and H. w. subspecies waimeae, found in Kaua‘i’s southwest valleys near the ocean, and Waimea Canyon. Hibiscus waimeae subspecies hannerae has smaller flowers but larger leaves than subspecies waimeae.

Both Hibiscus arnottianus and Hibiscus waimeae are fragrant, which makes them unique among hibiscus. Another distinguishing factor of these species is their pink-colored to magenta-colored staminal column. Both species are popular for use in producing hybrids.

[Photograph: Koki‘o Ke‘oke‘o—Hibiscus waimeae]

Various non-native ornamental hibiscus varieties are common in the Hawaiian Islands:

· Aloalo Ko‘ako‘a (ko‘ako‘a means “coral”) is the Hawaiian term for the coral hibiscus (Hibiscus schizopetalus).

Aloalo ko‘ako‘a is native to East Africa. The plant’s beautiful pendant, coral-colored flowers have fringed petals that arch up and back as they bloom. A deep red velvety variety was produced by hybridizing the plant with koki‘o (Hibiscus kokio).

[Photograph: Aloalo Ko‘ako‘a]

· Aloalo Pahūpahū (Malvaviscus arboreus var. penduliflorus) is also known as Turk’s Cap.

Turk’s cap is a native of Mexico, and is now common along roadsides in the Hawaiian Islands, and as an ornamental plant. Aloalo pahūpahū’s scientific name, penduliflorus, means “firecracker.”

The plant’s hanging blossoms are a bright scarlet color and look like unopened hibiscus blossoms. (See Aloalo Pahūpahū in Lei Flowers section, Chapter 3.)

[Photograph: Aloalo Pahūpahū]

· Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is of Asian origin, and is also known as red or Chinese hibiscus.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is one of the most popular hibiscus for use as hedges in the Hawaiian Islands as it blooms for extended periods. The flowers may be orange, yellow, red and variegated.

[Photograph: Hibiscus rosa-sinensis]

Ālula (Brighamia species)

Endemic to Kaua‘i and Moloka‘i.

Family: Campanulaceae—Bellflower Family

[Illustration: Ālula]

The Brighamia genus, also known by the Hawaiian term ālula, is divided into two species, both endangered: Brighamia insignis (also known as ‘ōlulu) found on the ocean cliffs of Kaua‘i’s Nāpali Coast, the nearby Hā‘upu Ridge, and on Ni‘ihau’s Ka‘ali Cliff; and Brighamia rockii (also known as pua ‘ala) and found on the windward sea cliffs of Moloka‘i between Hālawa and Kalaupapa. Both species have a rosette of large leaves that are about 6 inches (16 cm) long and 3½ inches (9 cm) wide.

Brighamia insignis has a yellow corolla, while Brighamia rockii has a white corolla with a tube that is yellowish green. The slightly fragrant flowers, arranged in a crown, emerge from the leaf axils on stem-like tubes. The flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter.

The ālula plant is said to resemble a cabbage on the end of a baseball bat. The stalk is sometimes branched. The plant was featured in Strangers in Paradise, a National Geographic television special, and at the IMAX in Waikiki, showing researchers scaling Kaua‘i’s cliffs to hand-pollinate the flowers.

This endangered species preservation effort has been going on for about the last 20 years, and often requires rappelling down cliffs and other arduous work to reach the rare plants.

Ālula was on the brink of extinction (because the moth that once pollinated the plant is now extinct) before benefiting greatly from the efforts of botanists who sought out the plant in its few remaining locations in order to assist in pollination and collect seeds for propagation.

Ālula preservation work is done principally by botanists of the National Tropical Botanical Gardens along Kaua‘i’s north coast. Many ālula plants now exist at the NTBG’s Limahuli Garden, a botanical preserve at the “end of the road,” (Kūhiō Highway-Route 560) on Kaua‘i’s north shore, which is also the beginning of the Nāpali coastline. The ālula is also being propagated at Kaua‘i’s Kīlauea Point Lighthouse National Wildlife Refuge.

‘Ālula was common along the Nāpali Coast trail until the mid 1900s when a variety of factors led to its decimation. These factors included introduced animals and plants, rock slides, over collection by people, and damage caused by Hurricane ‘Iniki. The plant remains extremely endangered with probably less than 100 growing in the wild.

The Brighamia genus belongs to the subfamily Lobelioideae of the family Campanulaceae (the Bellflower family), including some of the most beautiful flowers in the Hawaiian Islands. (See Hāhā‘aiakamanu, Koli‘i, ‘Ōhā, and Pu‘e sections.)

Recent molecular analyses (see Introduction to Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands) have shown that more than 120 uniquely Hawaiian species in the Campanulaceae subfamily Lobelioideae evolved from just one original colonizing species, a striking example of the evolutionary process of adaptive radiation.

The plants in the Campanulaceae subfamily Lobelioideae evolved in concert (co-evolved) with the native honeycreeper birds whose long, curving beaks pollinated the blossoms. Unfortunately, 25% of Lobelioideae are now extinct, as are more than 50% of the honeycreeper bird species that once pollinated the flowers.

[Photograph: Ālula]

‘Ama‘u (Sadleria species)

Common Name: Hawaiian Tree Fern

Endemic

Family: Blechnaceae—Blechnum Ferns

The Hawaiian term ‘ama‘u refers to all six endemic species of ferns in the genus Sadleria. The three largest species of ‘ama‘u are: S. souleyetiana (the largest); S. pallida (with transparent leaf veins); and S. cyatheoides (with opaque leaves).

‘Ama‘u tree ferns prefer moist forest habitats at elevations from 3,000 to 7,200 feet (900 to 2,200 m). ‘Ama‘u is also prevalent on relatively recent lava flow areas.

The trunk of ‘ama‘u may be less than 1 foot (30 cm) or more than 16 feet (5 m) tall, varying in different species. The fronds of ‘ama‘u are up to 3 feet (1 m) long, which is generally smaller and narrower than the fronds of hāpu‘u tree ferns (Cibotium species), and not as finely divided. ‘Ama‘u fronds are otherwise similar to those of hāpu‘u, consisting of many segments on a prominent midvein.

When ‘ama‘u fronds are young they are a bright red-bronze color, but they take on a glossy, dark green color as they mature. The fronds are a glossy, dark green color on top and more of a whitish green on the underside of the frond.

During times of food scarcity, ancient Hawaiians cooked and ate the starchy pith of ‘ama‘u tree ferns. This was done by cutting off the top and removing the hard outer layer from the trunk, then wrapping the inner pith in leaves of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and baking it in an imu (underground earthen oven). Young fronds of ‘ama‘u were also eaten, either cooked or raw.

The stems of ‘ama‘u tree ferns were used for plaiting, for thatching houses (when pili wasn’t available), for covering the walls of houses and for sizing kapa (tapa) barkcloth.

During the preparation of kapa, the sap of ‘ama‘u was sometimes mixed with the fresh water sprinkled on the bark strips during the beating process. A slimy extract from the fronds is known as palaholo, and was used to glue pieces of kapa barkcloth together. Young ‘ama‘u fronds were also used to create a red dye used on kapa.

An ancient proverb states: “Pepe‘e a palaholo.” (“A rolled-up frond—pasted for tapa cloth.”), which is “said of the ‘ama‘u fern, which furnishes sap used in tapa-making. Implies the same thought as the saying, ‘Great oaks from little acorns grow.’”[x]

Ancient Hawaiians utilized ‘ama‘u fronds for various other purposes, including as a mulch in the dry-land taro fields. Some ‘ama‘u tree ferns produce pulu, the soft wooly material also found in the hāpu‘u tree fern (Cibotium species). Pulu had many uses in ancient Hawai‘i (see Hāpu‘u).

The ‘ama‘u tree fern also has connections to ancient myths and traditions. According to legend, the pig god Kamapua‘a may take the form of ‘ama‘u, and has done so at Halema‘uma‘u Crater, a pit crater within the larger Kīlauea Crater on Hawai‘i Island.

Halema‘uma‘u means “House surrounded by the ‘ama‘u fern,” referring to the ferns that surround the volcanic crater and are the embodiment of Kamapua‘a.

At an elevation of 3,646 feet (1,111 m), Halema‘uma‘u Crater is also said to be the site where Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, still protects her sacred fires. Kamapua‘a was the demi-god who pursued the love of Pele, but was rejected.

‘Ama‘u had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a medicinal preparation to alleviate hānō (asthma). The medicine included flowers of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), the pith of the trunk of ‘ama‘u, and ‘ēkaha (Asplenium nidus, bird’s nest fern). (See Kī.)

[Photograph: ‘Ama‘u]

‘Ēkaha (Asplenium nidus)

Common Name: Bird’s Nest Fern

Indigenous

Family: Aspleniaceae

‘Ēkaha has large, sword-shaped fronds that form rosettes in nest-shaped clusters. The ferns grow to a height of about 3 feet (91 cm) on the ground or in tree branches. Small or young ‘ēkaha ferns are known as ‘ēkahaha.

In ancient Hawai‘i, the black midrib of the ‘ēkaha frond was used to decorate woven mats, and sometimes used to adorn hats made from lau hala, in the same manner as the fronds of the ‘ama‘u tree fern (Sadleria species).

Medicinal preparation to alleviate hānō (asthma) included ‘ēkaha as well as flowers of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and the starchy pith in the trunk of ‘ama‘u (see Kī,). ‘Ēkaha grows at elevations up to about 2,500 feet (760 m).

[Photograph: ‘Ēkaha]

Hāhā‘aiakamanu (Clermontia fauriei)

Common Name: Clermontia

Endemic

Family: Campanulaceae—Bellflower Family

Found only at the higher elevations in the mesic (moist) to wet forests of Kaua‘i and O‘ahu, hāhā‘aiakamanu is an endemic lobelia that grows as a tree or small shrub. The plant reaches heights of 6½ to 23 feet (2 to 7 m) with narrow, oblong leaves that are dark green on top and glossy underneath.

The flowers of hāhā‘aiakamanu are purplish-green on the outside and white on the inside, and about 2½ inches (6.5 cm) long. The curved flowers match the shape of the beaks of the Hawaiian birds that pollinate the flowers. Hāhā‘aiakamanu’s orange berries are edible and quite sweet.

Ancient Hawaiians used the thick sap of this plant for bird catching. The plant’s Hawaiian name, hāhā‘aiakamanu, means “food of the birds.” Clermontia fauriei was formerly classified as Clermontia clermontioides, and is a member of the Lobelioideae subfamily of Campanulaceae, the bellflower family, which includes some of the most beautiful flowers in the Hawaiian Islands. (See Ālula, Koli‘i ‘Ōhā, and Pu‘e sections.)

Recent molecular analyses (see Introduction to Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands) have shown that more than 120 uniquely Hawaiian species in the Campanulaceae subfamily Lobelioideae evolved from just one original colonizing species.

Unfortunately, more than 25% of the Lobelioideae species have become extinct since 1778 when Captain Cook first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands beginning the period of Western contact that brought various threats to native Hawaiian species.

The Clermontia genus is named after M. le Marquis de Clermont-Tonnerre, the Minister of the French Navy during the Freycinet Expedition that arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1819. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1819, Aug. 8.)

[Photograph: Clermontia]

Ha‘iwale (Cyrtandra species)

Endemic

Family: Gesneriaceae—African Violet Family

Ha‘iwale is a Hawaiian word that refers to all native Hawaiian species in the Cyrtandra genus, which includes at least 58 endemic Hawaiian species. Ha‘iwale are slender forest shrubs with leathery leaves that are narrow but long. The plants also produce white berries and often showy, white tubular flowers similar to African violets.

The numerous Cyrtandra species in the Hawaiian Islands have significant differences. Crytandra grayi grows mostly on Moloka‘i and Maui, and prefers streamside habitat.

Cyrtandra platyphylla, known for its heart-shaped leaves (platyphylla means “wide leaf”), grows in wet forests of Maui and Hawai‘i Island at elevations from 1,200 to 5,000 feet (370 to 1,525 m), and goes by the Hawaiian name ‘ilihia.

The 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[xi] recognizes three newly discovered Cyrtandra species, as well as a rediscovery of a species previously considered extinct (Cyrtandra cyaneoides, also known as māpele), and other classification changes in the Cyrtandra genus.

One species, formerly considered a variety (C. confertiflora var. obovata), is now classified as C. heinrichii, and is found on Kaua‘i in Hanakāpī‘ai Valley as well as near the Wailua River, Nāmolokama Mountain, and the upper Hanakoa Stream.

The newly discovered Cyrtandra species and classification changes increase the 53 endemic species recognized in the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xii] to 58 endemic Cyrtandra species.

Nine Cyrtandra species are federally listed as endangered, along with one species listed as threatened, and some Cyrtandra species are already extinct. The number of Cyrtandra species that are federally listed as endangered is likely to increase when the newly discovered species are considered.

[Photograph: Ha‘iwale (preferably ‘ilihia (Cyrtandra platyphylla)]

Hala (Pandanus tectorius)

Common Name: Screwpine

Indigenous

Family: Pandanaceae—Screw Pine Family

The hala tree may grow up to 33 feet (10 m) tall with a canopy up to 40 feet (12 m) across. The tree is supported by slanting, stilt-like, aerial roots (ulehala) that are known as prop roots because they provide the necessary support for the broad-branched tree.

The aerial roots grow out from the trunk and branches, and then enter the soil, sprouting rootlets and taking hold. In some trees the trunk may be gone, leaving the tree supported completely by prop roots.

Hala grows most commonly in coastal areas, but may be found at elevations up to about 2,000 feet (600 m). At lower elevation habitats the trees provide nesting sites for native seabirds, such as ‘a (Sula sula rubripes, red-footed boobies).

Hala was long thought to have been a Polynesian-introduced species, and not native to the Hawaiian Islands. Then hala fossils dated to more than one million years ago were discovered along Kaua‘i’s north shore, proving that hala is indeed a native Hawaiian plant. However, given the many uses of hala in early Polynesian culture, it is likely that the early settlers also brought the plant with them to the Hawaiian Islands on their voyaging canoes.

The thorny, pointed leaves of hala are known as lau hala, and are spirally arranged on the tree. Lau hala may be 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 m) long and ½ to 3 inches (4 to 8 cm) wide. The leaves tend to bend down at right angles at the midpoint of the leaf.

Fruit of the Hala

The female hala tree bears a roundish flower cluster that develops into an ‘ahui hala (elongated fruit) that looks somewhat like a pineapple. The composite fruit is about 4 to 8 inches (10 to 20 cm) long and 4 to 10 inches (10 to 25 cm) in diameter.

One fruit cluster may contain more than 50 angular, wedge-shaped fruitlets called keys, or phalanges, which are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide by 2 inches (5 cm) long. The phalanges are attached to a core known as ‘īkoi hala.

In ancient Hawai‘i, the hala keys were dried and the pua hala (fuzzy fibers on the inner ends) were cleaned with a splinter of ‘ohe (Schizostachyum glaucifolium, bamboo) and then used as brushes to paint kapa (tapa) barkcloth.

For drawing fine lines, the tufts of the fibers were trimmed. This fruit’s woody end (the outer end) is known as iwi hala, and is comprised of four to twelve cells that may be empty or have one nut-like seed, which may be eaten. Ancient Hawaiians ate the fruit of the hala during times of food scarcity.

Ancient Hawaiians distinguished between four different types of hala based upon the color of the tree’s fruit. The most common type has yellow fruit and is simply known as hala. Trees with completely orange-red phalanges are referred to as hala ‘ula, while the phalanges of hala pia are smaller and canary-yellow in color.

The phalanges of hala pia were used medicinally to remove evil spirits. Phalanges of hala lihilihi ‘ula are bright red at the base, fading to orangish-red (or yellowish) further from the base.

An ancient proverb states: “Pala ka hala, momona ka uhu.” (“When the pandanus fruit is ripe, the parrot fish is fat.”), which is explained as, “The sea urchin, a favorite food of the parrotfish, is fat during the season when the pandanus fruit is ripe. Feeding on fat sea urchin, the fish, too, become fat.”[xiii]

 

Lei Hala

Unripe hala fruitlets (keys) were used in ancient times for colorful lei. Lei hala were worn during the Makahiki, an ancient harvest festival, to symbolize the passing of the year’s bad luck and bad habits.

The Makahiki began with the first appearance of the crescent moon following the new moon after the appearance of the constellation Makali‘i (Pleiades) rising in the east after sunset (around the middle of October), and lasted several months.

During the Makahiki, time was taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.

The word hala also means “mistake, slip, or error,” and the hala lei was considered good luck around the time of the Makahiki, when the old year “slips away,” though the lei could be considered unlucky at other times. In post-contact times, hala keys were sometimes strung with the fragrant laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria, a post-contact introduction) between the hala keys.

Lau Hala

Lau hala had many uses in ancient Hawai‘i. After the welelau (leaf’s tip) and po‘o lau (base) were cut off and stripped of the kōkala (spines) that grow along the edges, hala’s fibrous leafs were then used to make plaited table and floor mats, baskets, hats, roof lining (thatching), fans, mattresses and containers for gathering pa‘akai (sea salt). Lau hala was also woven into sails for voyaging canoes.

Moena (lau hala mats) were used on the floors of homes thatched with pili grass pili grass (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass), while plaited lau hala was also used as a finishing layer on the walls.

Other uses for lau hala included: uluna (rectangular pillows); sandals and foot coverings for walking on rough terrain, such as lava; kinipōpō (small balls) used for juggling, and cube-shaped balls that were used to play games.

Finely matted lau hala was used to line the rails of papa hōlua (wooden sleds) down specially constructed tracks. Plaited lau hala was also used to cover the frames of ho‘olele lupe (flying kites).

[Illustration: Plaited hala, mat, container, etc.]

Hīnano—The Male Hala Flower

Female and male hala flowers occur on different trees. The male inflorescence (flower cluster) is known as hīnano, and grows as a spike about 1 foot (30 cm) long. Pointed, overlapping white bracts (modified leaves) surround the spike and cover clusters of tiny flowers.

Bracts of the hīnano were woven into the finest of the ancient mats. Known as moena hīnano, these mats woven from the hala blossoms were used only by ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) and kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession).

The fragrant yellow flowers of hīnano were used to scent kapa (tapa) barkcloth. The ‘ehu hīnano (flower’s pollen) was considered an aphrodisiac, and was also used by Hawaiians to preserve their items of featherwork, such as feather lei, ‘ahu ‘ula (capes and cloaks) worn by ali‘i, and kāhili, the feather standards that symbolized royalty.

[Illustration: Hīnano]

Other Traditional Uses of Hala

The soft insides of the trunk of the female hala tree may be hollowed out, and were used by early Hawaiians as irrigation pipes that allowed drainage between lo‘i kalo (taro patches). The wood of the male hala tree is harder than the wood of the female hala tree, and was used to create various items, including ‘umeke, or calabashes (bowls and other containers).

Burnt lau hala provided charcoal that was added to paint or stain used on canoes and surfboards. This mixture was often applied using tip of an uleule (aerial hala root), which was beaten on one end to make it into a brush.

The fine fibers of the aerial roots were also used for stringing lei, particularly for kui ‘ilima lei (see Lei Making Methods, Chapter 3), as well as for sewing and tying materials in various other lei.

Medicinal Uses of Hala

Hala also had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i. The tips of the aerial roots were pounded and mixed with kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and the juice of kō (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane), and then strained, heated and used as a tonic to relieve pain. The root tips are rich in vitamin B, and were sometimes wrapped in leaves of kī and cooked.

Bracts from the hīnano (the male flower cluster), produced oil that was used medicinally to cure headaches. The inner portions of the hala keys were dried and chewed, and then this mass was given to a child as a treatment for ‘ea (thrush) and other diseases affecting children.

A treatment for chest pain involved combining uleule (hala root tips) with various plants and herbs, including the ripe fruit of noni (Morinda citrifolia, Indian mulberry), taproot bark of pōpolo (Solanum americanum, glossy nightshade); ‘ala‘ala wai nui pehu (Peperomia species); stem bark of ‘ōhi‘a”, thought to refer to ‘ōhi‘a ‘ai (Eugenia malaccense, mountain apple); kō kea (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane); and older leaves, leaf buds, and flowers, and bark of taproot bark of ‘uhaloa (Waltheria indica); and leaves (possibly) of pā‘ihi (Rorippa sarmentosa, probably a Polynesian introduction, possibly indigenous; recently reclassified from Nasturtium sarmentosum).

Pounded together and strained through ‘ahu‘awa (Cyperus species), this mixture was then heated, cooled, and consumed twice per day.

A medicinal preparation to ease a difficult childbirth involved mashing and straining a mixture of: uleule (hala root tips); the red sedge called kohekohe (Eleocharis species, spikerush); stems of ‘ala‘ala wai nui pehu (Peperomia species); fruit from the red-stemmed sorrel known as ‘ihi mākole (Oxalis corniculata, yellow wood sorrel); flesh of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut); kō kea (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane); leaf buds of naio (Myoporum sandwicense, bastard sandalwood); and a marsh pennywort called pohe (Hydrocotyle verticillata).

Hala was also part of a medicinal preparation used to treat hānō (asthma). (See ‘Uhaloa.)

[Photograph: Hala tree]

Hāpu‘u (Cibotium species)

Common Name: Hawaiian Tree Fern

Endemic

Family: Dicksoniaceae

The endemic hāpu‘u is the most common tree fern in the Hawaiian Islands. It may reach heights of more than 20 feet (6 m) with a trunk up to 3 feet (.9 m) in diameter. The actual stem of the trunk may be only 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) in diameter, with the rest of the diameter of the trunk comprised of the interwoven aerial roots.

Hāpu‘u has lacy-looking triangular fronds that may be up to 12 feet (3.7 m) long. The fronds grow on long, thin stems that are brownish in color and smooth. The broad fronds grow in a cluster out from the center of the top of the trunk. The frond is divided into hundreds of tiny segments, known as pinnae, and each frond has a single prominent vein.

Hāpu‘u fronds are dark green on the upper surface but lighter green to whitish on the lower surface. The underside of the frond may be covered with fine hairs, and spore cases (sori) line the edges of the lower surface.

During times of food scarcity in ancient Hawai‘i, the uncoiled fronds of hāpu‘u were sometimes cooked and eaten. Also eaten during times of food scarcity was the starchy pith of the trunk.

The stem’s starch-filled core is enclosed in a hard, black layer sometimes called “wood.” The stem core in older hāpu‘u tree ferns may contain more than 70 pounds (32 kg) of starch.

The pith was harvested by cutting off the top of the plant, removing the hard outer layer from the trunk, wrapping the inner pith in leaves of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), and then baking it in an imu (underground earthen oven).

An ancient proverb states: “He hāpu‘u ka ‘ai he ‘ai make.” (“If the hāpu‘u is the food, it is the food of death.”), which is explained to mean, “When famine came, many depended on the hāpu‘u to sustain life, but it required much work to prepare. There was the cutting, the preparation of the imu, and three whole days during which the hāpu‘u cooked. If the food was done then, hunger was stayed; if not, there was another long delay, and by that time someone may have starved to death.”[xiv]

The term hāpu‘u refers to four different species that differ in the color and texture of their pulu, the hair that grows at the base of the pepe‘e (young fronds) and over the youngest furled fronds at the bud stems.

Hāpu‘u ‘i‘i (Cibotium. menziesii) produces reddish-brown to blackish pulu that has a stiff coarse texture, while hāpu‘u pulu (C. glaucum) produces a yellowish-brown pulu that is silky and soft. Hāpu‘u ‘i‘i is among the tallest of the endemic Cibotium species, reaching a height of up to 35 feet (10.7 m). C. glaucum is shorter, reaching a height of only about 10 feet (3 m).

Hāpu‘u tree ferns are common in many wet and shady forest areas, particularly on the island of Hawai‘i, but also grow in drier areas and forests of ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), preferring habitat between 1,000 and 6,000 feet (300 to 1,800 m).

Pulu

Ancient Hawaiians valued the reddish-brown or golden-yellow silky hair grows at the base of the pepe‘e (young fronds). This silky hair, or hāpu‘u pulu, had many uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as an absorbent for dressing wounds.

Another traditional use of hāpu‘u pulu was a stuffing for embalming the dead. After the brain, tongue, and body organs were removed from the deceased, the spaces were filled tightly with pulu, which absorbed the body fluids. The body openings were then sewed shut.

A body preserved in this way was known as i‘aloa, which means “long fish.” Bodies embalmed with pulu could remain preserved for up to several months.

In the 1800s, a commercial pulu industry developed to take advantage of the market for the soft pulu fibers of hāpu‘u tree ferns. The peak of the pulu industry occurred between 1859 and 1885, when a great deal of pulu was exported for use as stuffing for mattresses and pillows.

Extensive cutting of hāpu‘u tree ferns to get the relatively small amount of pulu threatened the species’ survival. In 1869 alone, more than 300 tons (272 mtons) of pulu were harvested. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1859-1885.)

Other Uses of Hāpu‘u

Ancient Hawaiians used the hāpu‘u trunks, laid horizontally, to create bins that were filled with the fronds and other decaying debris in which seedling yam tubers were planted.

Hāpu‘u was also part of various medicinal preparations in ancient Hawai‘i, including: a formulation used to cleanse the blood (see Pōhuehue); an absorbent used to administer preparations for treating growths in the nose (see Kī and ‘Ōlena sections) and for treating sinus problems (see ‘Ōlena).

For a short time in the 1920s there was a fern-starch industry based near Hilo, and many hāpu‘u tree ferns were cut down for this trunk starch (used for doing laundry). In more recent times, the hāpu‘u tree fern root masses have been used as potting material for orchids.

[Photograph: Hāpu‘u Tree Fern]

Hau (Talipariti tiliaceus)

Indigenous and/or Polynesian-Introduced

Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family

Hau may grow upright and reach a height of more than 33 feet (10 m), but more commonly it grows crooked and tangled, often forming dense thickets with low spreading branches.

Hau grows in coastal areas, preferring wet habitat, particularly along the banks of streams and near river mouths. Hau also grows inland, and may be found at elevations of more than 4,000 feet (1,200 m).

An ancient proverb states: “Keke‘e hau o Ma‘alo.” (“Crooked are the hau trees of Ma‘alo.”), which is explained to mean, “A humorous saying. The hau grove of Ma‘alo, Maui, was known as a place for illicit love affairs.”[xv]

Hau’s heart-shaped leaves are large and rounded. The leaves are about 3 to 8 inches (8 to 20 cm) long and 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 cm) wide, and smooth on top but coated with fine, matted hairs underneath, giving them a whitish appearance.

Hau’s plenteous, hibiscus-like flowers are 1½ to 3 inches (4 to 8 cm) long, spreading out from a tubular base. The hau flower has a bright yellow corolla (rarely whitish) that forms a cup, usually with a dark purplish, red or maroon “eye” in the center of the flower petals. The mouth of the flower may be up to 5 inches (13 cm) across.

Blossoming at or near the branch ends, hau flowers bloom yellow in the morning, turning to orange and then a mahogany red color later in the day. Then within about one day the flowers turn green to brown and fall off, though the ovary and calyx remain on the tree. Hau’s fruiting capsules are ovoid in shape, about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, and divided into five valves that each hold three smooth seeds.

Hau may be indigenous, or may have been brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands. It has been shown that hau seeds are readily dispersed by seawater, and may retain their ability to grow even after being at sea for several months.

Even if hau is native, it was likely also brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesians, as it had many important uses in ancient Hawaiian culture.

Traditional Uses of Hau

In pre-contact Hawai‘i, hau and olonā (Touchardia latifolia) were the primary plants providing kae, the bast fibers that were spun into satiny twine, cordage and rope with many uses in Hawaiian culture. (See Ōlonā.) Hau was also used to make kapa (tapa) barkcloth, although wauke (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry) was generally preferred.

While the more common variety of hau often grows crooked in tangled thickets near the ground, a less common variety, known as hau oheohe grows straighter and was preferred for bast fibers. Hau fibers used for cordage came from plant’s inner bark, though using all of the bark also made a strong rope. For a finer grade cordage the outer bark was removed and just the inner bark was used.

Ancient Hawaiians used hau cord for the lashings on sailing canoes and for fishnets as well as shark nets. Hau fibers were also used for stringing, tying and sewing lei.

Another use of hau fibers was for the cord attached to the oeoe, or bull-roarer, a musical instrument made from the seed of kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel). (See Kamani.)

Ancient Hawaiians (especially the young) also made various hei (string figures) using string looped around the fingers, and this string was usually made from hau bast. Many of these string figures were associated with chants that described the shapes. At least 115 different string figures were produced.

Hau bast was also used to produce ma‘a, or slings, used to hurl stones. The ma‘a consisted of hau bast plaited into a pouch, with three of the plies left longer and braided into the cords that were held onto during the act of slinging the basalt sling stones, known as ‘ala o ka ma‘a. These stones were often polished.

The wood of hau was used for fishnet floats and for the railings of canoes. Hau’s lightness and strength also made it the preferred wood for the ‘iako (booms) for canoes, which were made from two naturally curved hau branches often acquired from a hot, dry area where the most dense, and thus strongest hau trees grew.

Heat was sometimes used to bend the branches to the proper shape. The canoe’s booms were attached to an ama (outrigger float), which also might be constructed from hau, though wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis, coral tree) was usually used.

Because hau is light and strong, its wood was also used to start fires. This was done by rapidly rotating the harder wood of olomea (Perrottia sandwicensis) to create friction against the softer hau wood. The roughly pointed hardwood (e.g., olomea) used in this fire making process is known as ‘au lima, while the soft wood (e.g., hau) is known as ‘aunaki.

Hau branches placed along a shoreline were a sign that fishing was kapu (forbidden). Hau wood was also used, along with pāpala (Charpentiera species), for the ‘ōahi (fire throwing) ceremony on Kaua‘i’s north shore.

The wood was lit on fire and thrown off the ocean cliffs, making a spectacular sight as it was blown over the ocean by the strong seaward winds. (See Pāpala section for more information on the ‘ōahi ceremony).

Hau’s light, flexible wood was used to construct the frames for ho‘olele lupe (flying kites), which were then covered with kapa barkcloth or plaited lau hala and flown on a cord made from olonā (Touchardia latifolia). Hau wood was also used to make lightweight ihe (spears) for practicing ‘ō‘ō ihe (spear throwing).

A branch of hau was also a symbol of war between opposing warriors. During battles in ancient Hawai‘i, a kahuna (priest) from each opposing side would venture ahead of the armies and place a hau branch into the ground.

This branch was referred to as mīhau, and was respected by each side as a symbol of impending victory until one side persevered at which point the other side would allow their mīhau to fall.

Medicinal Uses of Hau

The flowers and sap of hau also had medicinal uses. One use of the flower buds was to alleviate constipation, though for people older than about two years, the flower buds of pūwahanui (a medicinal plant of unknown identity) were preferred.

Another formulation to treat constipation was prepared by using the shell of an ‘opihi (Cellana species) to scrape the hau’s inner bark. The resulting material was mixed with water and then after some time strained through ‘ahu‘awa (Cyperus javanicus).

Chest congestion was treated with a mixture made from sap scraped from the hau’s inner bark that was mixed with slimy sap from young fronds of ferns such as kikawaiō (Christella cyatheoides), and possibly ‘iwa‘iwa (Asplenium species) or ‘uwī‘uwī (Conyza species).

This preparation was mixed with water and then strained through stems of ‘ahu‘awa (Cyperus javanicus). Added to this was a liquid obtained by mashing root bark of pōpolo (Solanum americanum, glossy nightshade) and ‘uhaloa (Waltheria indica) and straining it through a mesh made from niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm). This medicinal treatment was followed by drinking tea made from ko‘oko‘olau (Bidens species).

The sap of hau’s inner bark was also used to facilitate labor in women and ease their labor pains (see ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua). To alleviate a dry throat or congestion, the young leaf buds of the hau were chewed.

Hau had various other medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a treatment for chest pains (see Mai‘a); a preparation used as an enema (see Noni); a treatment for constipation (see Mai‘a); and a preparation that helped a person sleep (see ‘Uala).

[Photograph: Hau]

Hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum)

Endemic

Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family

A native heliotrope, hinahina is a low-growing perennial plant that grows on the beach above the high water line. Also known by the Hawaiian name of hinahina kū kahakai (kahakai means “beach”), hinahina is commonly found in tidal zones and sandy coastal areas. The seeds of hinahina are very saltwater-tolerant.

Hinahina means “white-haired,” or “gray,” likely referring to the plant’s slender leaves, which are about 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long and relatively thick, though not fleshy, and sometimes widening near the tip. Hinahina stems and leaves are covered with tiny white hairs that give them a silver appearance.

Hinahina also has fragrant, 5- or 6-lobed flowers that are white (sometimes purplish) in color, with yellow centers. The corolla is about ¼-inch (6 mm) long. The flowers grow up from the plant on spikes, ending in forked stalks.

The leaves and flowers of hinahina are used in lei, and may be twisted into open-ended garlands. Hinahina is the designated emblem of the island of Kaho‘olawe. (See Island Emblems, Chapter 3.) The plant was decimated by goats introduced to Kaho‘olawe but replanting efforts have helped re-establish the native species on the island.

In ancient Hawai‘i, hinahina leaves were used to make tea, particularly when koko‘olau (Bidens species) was not available. Hinahina also had medicinal uses in ancient times including as part of a treatment for ‘ea (thrush) (see ‘Ōhi‘a ‘Ai); hānō (asthma) (see ‘Uala); and for consumption (see Pōhuehue).

[Photograph: Hinahina]

Hoi Kuahiwi (Smilax melastomifolia)

Common Name: Hawaiian Greenbrier

Endemic

Family: Smilacaceae—Catbrier Family

Hoi kuahiwi has cordate (heart-shaped) to ovate, shiny leathery leaves with longitudinal veins. The plant also bears small flowers in the leaf axils, and berries that are less than ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter.

A woody vine, hoi kuahiwi prefers mesic (moist) to wet forest habitat up to about 6,900 feet (2,100 m). The plant has tuberous rhizomes, which reportedly were eaten by ancient Hawaiians during times of food scarcity.

[Photograph: Hoi Kuahiwi]

Hō‘i‘o Fern (Diplazium sandwichianum)

Common Name: Fiddlehead Fern

Endemic

Family: Athyriaceae

Hō‘i‘o ferns are relatively abundant, mostly growing at higher elevations in mountain habitat from 2,000 to 6,000 feet (610 to 1,825 m). The subdivided fronds may reach a length of more than 5 feet (1.5 m).

There are two endemic species in the Hawaiian Islands referred to as hō‘i‘o: D. sandwichianum and D. molokaiense (an endangered species). Hō‘i‘o is distinguished from the similar looking Dryopteris glabra by the arrangement of the sori (spore capsules), which appear in round clusters on Dryopteris glabra, but are arranged in a chevron pattern on the fronds of hō‘i‘o.

Traditional Uses

Ancient Hawaiians ate the hō‘i‘o’s pepe‘e (young coiled fronds), which are commonly known as fiddleheads. The young, tightly-coiled fronds were eaten with raw ‘ōpae (Macrobrachium grandimanus, Halocaridina rubra; fresh water shrimp).

Hō‘i‘o ferns were also eaten with poi. An ancient proverb states: “Ka i‘a lauoho loloa o ka ‘āina.” (“The long-haired fish of the land.”), referring to “...any vegetable eaten with poi, such as taro greens, ho‘i‘o or kikawaiō ferns, or sweet potato greens. Poetically, leaves are the oho or lauoho, hair, of plants.”[xvi]

The Legend of the Piliwale Sisters

One Hawaiian legend tells of how Lohi‘au, a chief of Hā‘ena on Kaua‘i named Lohi‘au devised a plan with his sister Kahua-nui to stop the Piliwale sisters, who were unwelcome guests with insatiable appetites.

They knew that the Piliwale sisters would turn to stone if they were ever touched by the rays of the sun, so Lohi‘au and Kahua-nui enticed two of the four sisters to the top of the mountain and entertained them with hula and an elaborate feast, with the last course consisting of the irresistible favorites of hō‘i‘o and ‘ōpae.

Dawn arrived and the sisters ran down the mountain for their cave, but they were halted along the way when the sunlight touched them and turned them to stone. The silhouettes of the sisters are still visible today along the ridge of the mountain.

[Photograph: Hō‘i‘o]

‘Ie‘ie (Freycinetia arborea)

Endemic

Family: Pandanaceae—Screw Pine Family

‘Ie‘ie is a climbing vine with long, narrow, spiny leaves that are about 2 inches (5 cm) wide at the base, and up to 2½ feet (76 cm) long, coming to a point. The plant also bears yellowish flowers on clustered, cylindrical spikes that rise from the leaf cluster.

The spikes are about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter and about five inches (13 cm) long, surrounded by a protective tuft of leaf-like edible bracts (modified leaves) that may be apricot-orange to pink or green on the bottom surface of the bract. When bats or birds pollinate the plant, thick cylindrical orange fruits develop as spikes, with numerous seeds.

‘Ie‘ie is a cousin of hala, and prefers wet habitat at middle elevations from 1,000 to 4,500 feet (300 to 1,370 m). Strong aerial roots of ‘ie‘ie grow out from the stem, and may be as long as 20 feet (6 m), sometimes reaching the ground and entering the soil.

In ancient Hawai‘i, the aerial roots of ‘ie‘ie were sometimes used for bird catching, and the sword-like leaves were said to embody the eternal spirit of the beautiful young Lauka‘ie‘ie, whose name means, “Leaf of the ‘ie‘ie.”

An ancient proverb states: “E ‘imi wale no i ka lua o ka ‘uwa‘u ‘a‘ole e loa‘a.” (“Seek as you will the burrow of the ‘uwa‘u, it cannot be found.”), which is explained to mean, “A boast of one’s skill in lua fighting, of the depth of one’s knowledge, or of a skill that isn’t easily acquired. A play on lua, a burrow, a pit, or an art of fighting. The burrow of the ‘uwa‘u bird is often deep. Birdcatchers inserted a piece of aerial root of the ‘ie‘ie, gummed at one end, to catch the fledglings.”[xvii]

The aerial roots of ‘ie‘ie were used in ancient Hawai‘i to make the base cap for the crested helmet (mahiole) worn by Hawaiian royalty. When making a mahiole, first the bark was removed from the ‘ie‘ie roots and the roots were split and soaked.

The roots were then weaved and twined together to provide the base of the mahiole, to which the fine-mesh netting holding the feathers was attached.

These crested helmets were unique to the Hawaiian Islands, and beautifully adorned with the colorful feathers of ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), ‘ō‘ō (Moho species), mamo (Drepanis pacifica), and other birds.

‘Ie‘ie, along with lama (Diospyros species, ebony), ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa, Hawaiian hopseed bush), and maile (Alyxia oliviformis) are considered sacred to the hula goddess Laka, and in ancient Hawai‘i these plants were placed on the hula altar in her honor.

‘Ie‘ie is also a food source for native birds, including the Kaua‘i ‘akialoa (Hemignathus procerus) which uses its long curved beak to sip honey from the base of the leaves of ‘ie‘ie as well as hala pepe (Pleomele species). ‘Ie‘ie is also a food source for the ‘alalā (Horvus hawaiiensis, Hawaiian crow).

‘Ie‘ie was used as part of the ceremonial preparations for making a canoe. A piece of the vine was tied around the fallen koa tree at the point where it was to be cut by the canoe makers. The aerial roots of ‘ie‘ie with the bark removed were also used to make hīna‘i (fish traps), and were used in the construction of various musical instruments.

Split aerial ‘ie‘ie roots were also used in the construction of akua hulu (feathered gods) and were used with lama (Diospyros species, ebony) to construct underwater fish traps. (See Lama.)

The baskets that ancient Hawaiians made from the roots of ‘ie‘ie are considered the finest in all of Polynesia. Known as ‘ie, these twined baskets were made starting at the bottom center and working outward and upward to complete the basket.

[Illustration: Twined basket made from roots of ‘ie‘ie]

[Photograph: ‘Ie‘ie]

‘Iliahi (Santalum species)

Common Name: Sandalwood Tree

Endemic (four species)

Family: Santalaceae—Sandalwood Family

In Hawaiian, ‘ili ahi means “fiery surface.” The Hawaiian name for the sandalwood tree, ‘iliahi, refers to the tree’s reddish blooms and new leaves. Sandalwood also produces small purple fruits.

Sandalwood trees may be up to 65 feet (19 m) tall, with small leathery leaves that are glossy, dark to pale green, or green-blue, and about 4 inches (10 cm) long, though sometimes shorter and thicker, and elliptical in shape. ‘Iliahi flowers may be green, yellow, pale red or magenta. The flowers grow in clusters that are often pleasantly scented, and sometimes used in lei.

Before the intense logging of sandalwood trees in the early 1800s, the Hawaiian Islands had extensive sandalwood groves in the mountains. Four endemic Hawaiian sandalwood species (and numerous varieties) are currently recognized, including S. ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, S. haleakalae, and S. paniculatum.

S. ellipticum grows from 3 to 16 feet (1 to 5 m) tall, prefers dry coastal habitats, and is known by its Hawaiian name ‘iliahialo‘e, or its common name, coast sandalwood. (See ‘Iliahialo‘e).

S. freycinetianum, the variety that was most desired for harvest in the sandalwood trade, may reach heights of more than 43 feet (13 m), growing in moist to wet forest habitat below about 3,300 feet (1,000 m) on Maui, Lāna‘i, Moloka‘i, O‘ahu and Kaua‘i.

S. haleakalae grows to between 7 and 13 feet (2 to 4 m) tall on the upper slopes of Maui’s Haleakalā Volcano in alpine shrubland. S. paniculatum may reach heights of more than 65 feet (19 m), growing on the island of Hawai‘i in dry woodlands (on lava flows or cinder cones) and also in the island’s wetter forests, at elevations from 1,500 to 6,500 feet (450 to 2,000 m).

The drupe-like flowers of S. haleakalae and S. freycinetianum have abundant nectar and reddish corollas, while S. paniculatum and S. ellipticum flowers do not have nectar, and have greenish corollas that turn yellowish-brown or orange (sometimes salmon-colored).

The flowers form in the leaf axils or in panicles (branched inflorescences, or flower clusters) at the branch ends. The roots of the sandalwood tree have special structures that are able to extract nutrients from nearby plants.

Though parasitic, the sandalwood tree won’t kill the host plant, which might be koa (Acacia koa), koai‘a (Acacia koaia), ‘ilima (Sida fallax), ‘ohai (Sesbania tomentosa), ‘ohi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), or other native plants.

Traditional Uses of Sandalwood

While four species of sandalwood are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, the sandalwood tree also grows in other parts of the world. The Chinese have traditionally valued the close-grained fine-smelling sandalwood for making fine furniture, boxes, chests and carvings, as well as perfume and incense.

The older trees are the most valued due to their increased fragrance (the scent increases with age). In young trees, only the roots and heartwood of the tree are scented. The Hawaiian word for the ‘iliahi heartwood is lā‘au‘ala, which means “fragrant wood” or “sweet wood.”

[Illustration: Sandalwood box or other items]

Traditional Hawaiian uses of sandalwood included placing powdered sandalwood between layers of kapa (tapa) barkcloth to impart the sweet fragrance to the cloth, or using hot stones to heat a mixture of ‘iliahi and the oil of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm), and then adding the mixture to kapa dyes. Sandalwood also had various medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a treatment to sooth the pains of aching joints (see ‘Awaphuhi Kuahiwi).

The wood of ‘iliahi was used for the construction of musical instruments, including the ‘ūkēkē, a wooden bow about 1½ inches (4 cm) wide and 16 to 24 inches (40 to 60 cm) long with three strings (sometimes two).

The ‘ūkēkē was the only stringed instrument of ancient Hawai‘i. The strings of the ‘ūkēkē are strummed while the player’s mouth is used as a resonance chamber. The ‘ūkēkē produces a speech-like sound, although no noise is made by the player’s vocal cords.

The Sandalwood Trade

A New England ship captain (a fur trader) visiting Kaua‘i in 1791, Captain John Kendrick (c.1740—1794) of Boston, traded some of his goods for a load of firewood that contained some wood of the fragrant sandalwood tree.

It was soon discovered that sandalwood could be sold for a high price in Canton, China, and it was then that the Hawaiian sandalwood trade began. China, which had previously obtained all their sandalwood from an East Indian species, created a nearly insatiable market for the fragrant sandalwood.

In 1806, a Boston trading ship named the O’Cain, under the command of Jonathan Winship, arrived in the Hawaiian Islands. The chief mate of the ship was Jonathan’s brother, Nathan Winship.

The brothers returned to the Hawaiian Islands in October of that year, and then in the spring of 1810, Nathan returned again as captain of the Albatross. Nathan Winship transported Kaua‘i’s ruler, Kamuali‘i, to O‘ahu so that Kamuali‘i could cede his land over to King Kamehameha I at the death of Kamuali‘i, thus finally uniting all of the Hawaiian Islands under one ruler. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1810.)

In the winter of 1811, the two brothers returned to O‘ahu, Jonathan Winship on the O‘Cain and Nathan Winship on the Albatross. They took away a load of sandalwood, and when King Kamehameha I was happy with his profits, he granted the Winships (along with Captain William Davis) an exclusive ten-year contract for sales of sandalwood on all the Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i.

The two brothers became pioneers in the Hawaiian Islands’ sandalwood trade. The contract was cancelled after their 1813 voyage, however, due to the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States.

In 1816 the Winships returned to Boston. Sandalwood remained a primary source of income in the Hawaiian Islands for the next 15 years. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1791; 1806; 1810-1820 for more information about the sandalwood trade.)

Consequences of the Sandalwood Trade

During the peak years of the sandalwood trade (1810-1840), maka‘āinana (commoners) were forced by the ali‘i (chiefs) to climb high in the mountains to cut down the tall trees.

Carrying the wood down from the mountains was hard work, and sandalwood harvesting occurred at the expense of the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) and other traditional agricultural food production and cultural practices. Sandalwood traders supplied the Hawaiian chiefs with clothes, furniture, liquor and other goods, eroding away at customary ways of native life.

The sandalwood forests of the Hawaiian Islands were logged at a rapid pace to meet China’s growing market, and this eventually exhausted the supply. Between 1810 and 1820, sandalwood sold for about $125/ton, generating more than three million dollars. By 1840, nearly all of sandalwood trees of marketable size in the Hawaiian Islands had been cut down.

Endangered Status

Despite the extensive harvesting of all marketable sandalwood trees in the past, just one ‘iliahi variety, S. freycinetianum variety lanaiense, is currently listed as an endangered species in danger of becoming extinct.

Less than a few hundred Santalum freycinetianum variety lanaiense remain in the wild, growing only in some scattered locations on Maui and Lāna‘i. A main threat to the species is caused by habitat damage due to introduced mammals (goats, deer, and Mouflon sheep).

Another hindrance to ‘iliahi reproduction comes from introduced rats, which feed on the fruits of the trees.

[Photograph: Sandalwood Tree]

‘Iliahialo‘e (Santalum ellipticum)

Common Name: Coast Sandalwood

Endemic

Family: Santalaceae—Sandalwood Family

‘Iliahialo‘e is a low-growing coastal shrub to small tree, growing from 3 to 16 feet (1 to 5 m) tall, with gray-green leaves that grow opposite one another. The leaves may be succulent or more leathery, and are elliptic in shape, about 1½ inches (4 cm) long and just over 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide. ‘Iliahialo‘e also produces small flowers with four sepals.

‘Iliahialo‘e’s fragrant flowers bloom in panicles (branched inflorescences, or flower clusters) at the branch tips or leaf axils, and are yellowish-green in color, tinted with brown or orange after opening. The green immature fruit of ‘iliahialo‘e turns red and then dark blue-purple to black as it ripens.

‘Iliahialo‘e prefers relatively dry, coastal habitats, including forest and shrubland areas, as well as rocky ‘a‘ā lava flow areas. Trees nearer to the coast tend to have more succulent leaves, and formerly have been classified as S. ellipticum var. littorale. (See ‘Iliahi.)

[Photograph: ‘Iliahialo‘e]

Iliau (Wilkesia gymnoxiphium)

Endemic

Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family

Iliau is an erect, usually unbranched plant with a tall, hollow stem that produces a tuft of about 9 to 15 narrow, sword-shaped leaves that are about 6 to 19½ inches (15 to 50 cm) long. When iliau matures, a flower stalk rises up from its center. From this central flower stalk, which may be from 3 to 10 feet (.9 to 3 m) tall, there emerges a spectacular floral display of hundreds of slightly fragrant, yellow to cream-colored, daisy-like flowers.

In the evening hours the iliau plant (not the flowers) may give off a ginger flower-like scent. The sticky flowers are arranged in whorls around the stalks creating a fountainous bloom containing from 40 to more than 350 flowers. Iliau usually blooms from May to July. After blooming, the plant dies.

The genus Wilkesia is represented in the Hawaiian Islands by two species: iliau (W. gymnoxiphium) and dwarf iliau (W. hobdyi). Both species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, and dwarf iliau is extremely endangered. Dwarf iliau reaches a height of about 2-1/3 feet (70 cm), while iliau may reach a height of more than 16 feet (5 m).

Iliau is a relative of ‘āhinahina (silversword) (see ‘Āhinahina section), and prefers relatively dry to mesic (moist) forest habitat and may grow on ridges and other open areas from about 1,400 to 3,600 feet (425 to 1,100 m).

Iliau grows along Kaua‘i’s Waimea Canyon Rim Trail as well as at Limahuli National Tropical Botanical Garden on Kaua‘i’s north shore.

[Photograph: Iliau]

‘Ilima (Sida fallax)

Indigenous

Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family

Iliau grows most commonly in coastal areas, and is a low-lying plant that may reach heights of more than 5 feet (1.5 m), with trailing branches and light green leaves.

‘Ilima’s leaves are heart-shaped or oblong, and about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long with serrated margins. The tissue paper-thin flowers of ‘ilima are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter with five petals, and vary in color from light to deep yellow, orange, greenish, dull red or copper-colored, occurring in groups of one to three near the branch tips.

A whitish down covers both the plant’s leaves and the wheel-like seed cases. ‘Ilima’s seed cases may have from seven to twelve spokes, with each compartment containing a single seed.

‘Ilima grows in a variety of habitats up to about 6,500 feet (1,980 m), from coastal areas to lava fields, from dry to mesic (moist) forest areas, and in some wetter forests at low elevations. ‘Ilima blossoms year round, particularly during summer.

‘Ilima Lei

‘Ilima lei, often mentioned in Hawaiian legends, were traditionally woven for ancient royalty. The ‘ilima lei is the official emblem of the island of O‘ahu. Traditionally used on the ends of the ‘ilima lei were the soft, green fruit of ma‘o (Abutilon grandifolium, hairy abutilon), or the ‘ilima flower’s cap-like calyx.

The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima. ‘Ilima was also the flower lei worn by the goddess Hina when, with the help of the god Māui, she escaped from the cave of the monster eel Kuna Loa.

The ‘ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i. Stringing a single ‘ilima lei may take 700 to 1,000 or more ‘ilima flowers. The domesticated form of ‘ilima is known as ‘ilima lei, and is the most common variety used in lei.

It has been widely reported that ‘ilima lei were reserved for the upper class, or ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) in ancient Hawai‘i, but other accounts state that ‘ilima was utilized more widely as a lei flower. ‘Ilima blossoms are sometimes interwoven with maile.

Medicinal Uses of ‘Ilima

‘Ilima had numerous medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i. The flower buds were sometimes pre-chewed and then given to children as a mild laxative. The root bark was pounded together with other plants and consumed as a tonic if one felt weak or if one was affected by asthma.

The juice of ‘ilima flowers, used medicinally, is known as kanakamaika‘i, a term that literally means “good person.”

Various treatments for children’s diseases included parts of ‘ilima. In one preparation the taproot of ‘ilima was mashed with: leaf buds and flowers of ‘ala‘ala wai nui pehu (Peperomia species), a native forest herb; ‘uhaloa (Waltheria indica); leaves of pōpolo (Solanum americanum, glossy nightshade); ripe fruit of noni (Morinda citrifolia, Indian mulberry); along with kō kea (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane), which was one of the most preferred native sugarcane varieties for medicinal uses.

Children consumed the resulting liquid as a treatment for thrush, or ‘ea, a general term for infectious diseases, a sore throat, and other ailments.

A treatment for hānō (asthma) utilized the bark of the ‘ilima taproot, along with ‘ilima flowers and leaf buds. This was mashed and pounded together with kō kea (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane) and pūkāmole (Lythrum maritimum, a post-contact introduction), and then squeezed to produce a liquid that was strained into a calabash and heated, then cooled and consumed twice a day for five days.

A pregnant mother might chew and swallow ‘ilima flowers to ease the pains of childbirth. Sap squeezed from ‘ilima flowers was used as a gentle laxative for babies.

The domesticated form of ‘ilima is known as ‘ilima lei, and is the most common variety used in lei. Other ‘ilima varieties grow in various Hawaiian habitats, including ‘ilima kū kahakai (which grows in sandy areas), ‘ilima makana‘ā (which grows on lava beds), ‘ilima papa (also called ‘ilima kū kula, which means “‘ilima standing on plains”), and ‘ilima kuahiwi.

Domesticated varieties of ‘ilima include the light yellow ‘ilima ōkea, and ‘ilima koli kukui, with rare red-bronze flowers. (See Lei Flowers section in Chapter 3 for more information about ‘ilima.)

[Photograph: ‘Ilima]

‘Iwa‘iwa (Adiantum, Asplenium, Doryopteris)

‘Iwa‘iwa is the Hawaiian term for several different ferns in three different genera, including Adiantum, Asplenium, Doryopteris. Each is treated here separately. ‘Iwa‘iwa had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a treatment for chest congestion (see Hau).

Adiantum Species—Maidenhair Ferns

Family: Pteridaceae

Indigenous

‘Iwa‘iwa is the Hawaiian term for all maidenhair ferns (Adiantum species). Maidenhair ferns are usually shiny and slender.

‘Iwa‘iwa ‘āpi‘ipi‘i (Adiantum tenerum f. farleyense) is known as the curly maidenhair (‘āpi‘ipi‘i means “curly”), a fern that is sometimes grown ornamentally.

Adiantum capillus-veneris is also known as ‘iwa‘iwa hāwai, or the Venus-hair fern, and has bright green fronds that are subdivided into numerous fan-shaped divisions. The fronds are about 16 inches (40 cm) long and the individual leaves are about ¾-inch (19 mm) wide, with rectangular spore pockets (sori).

The shiny black stalks of the Venus-hair fern were used by ancient Hawaiians to create decorative designs in the plaiting of lau hala mats. Venus hair ferns prefer wet conditions below 2,000 feet (600 m), including areas exposed to salt spray.

A similar species, Adiantum raddianum, with round sori, is a post-contact introduction known as the common maidenhair, and also referred to by the Hawaiian term ‘iwa‘iwa.

[Photograph: Venus-hair fern, Adiantum capillus-veneris]

Asplenium Species

Family: Aspleniaceae

Indigenous; Endemic

‘Iwa‘iwa also refers to Asplenium adiantum-nigrum, a small indigenous fern that prefers higher elevations. Asplenium adiantum-nigrum has brown, shiny stems and stiff ovate or triangular, subdivided fronds.

The glossy, dark stalk of A. adiantum-nigrum is dark brown at the base changing to a greenish color higher on the frond. A. adiantum-nigrum fronds are subdivided (two divisions) and reach a height of about 16 inches (41 cm) with spores arranged in a chevron pattern. The fern prefers dry forest habitat as well as lava flow areas from 2,000 to 8,000 feet (610 to 2,440 m).

‘Iwa‘iwa-a-Kāne (Asplenium rhipodoneuron) is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, and has feather-shaped fronds that are narrow, stiff, dark green, and about 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) in length.

Also endemic to the Hawaiian Islands is ‘iwa‘iwa lau nui (Tectaria gaudichaudii), in the scientific family Dryopteridaceae. ‘Iwa‘iwa lau nui has dark green, triangular-shaped fronds that are from 12 to 47 inches (30 cm to 1.2 m) in length (lau nui means “large leafed”).

The fern also likely shares the ‘iwa‘iwa name due to its dark, wiry stalk. ‘Iwa‘iwa lau nui prefers wet, shady habitat at elevations up to about 6,000 feet (1,830 m).

Asplenium ferns are also referred to as spleenwort ferns because they have been used to treat spleen disorders.

[Photograph: Asplenium adiantum-nigrum]

Doryopteris species

Family: Pteridaceae

Endemic

‘Iwa‘iwa also refers to species in the genus Doryopteris, which are ferns that grow to about 15 inches (38 cm) high, with inverted, heart-shaped fronds separated into long segments.

This fern also prefers exposed and rocky areas at elevations from 500 to 3,000 feet (150 to 915 m). They are also referred to by the Hawaiian term manawahua. Varieties of Doryopteris include D. angelica D. decipiens and D. decora.

[Photograph: Doryopteris]

Kā‘e‘e (Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea)

Common Name: Sea Bean

Indigenous

Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family

Kā‘e‘e is a high-growing, woody vine that usually reaches lengths of about 26 to 49 feet (8 to 15 m) but may measure more than 260 feet (80 m). Kā‘e‘e has ovate leaflets that are about 1½ to 5 inches (4 to 13 cm) long and 1 to 3 inches (2.5 to 7.5 cm) wide.

The plant also produces green, yellow, yellowish-green, chartreuse or red flowers that are usually just less than 2 inches (5 cm) long, hanging in a cluster that is about 5 inches (13 cm) long on a long stem.

The large, oblong, dark brown seedpods of kā‘e‘e are about 4 inches (10 cm) long and covered with stinging orangish-brown hairs that may be extremely unpleasant and irritating to the skin and eyes.

The seedpods hold from one to four (usually two or three) round, flattened seeds, called pēka‘a. Each seed is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter and about 1/3-inch (8 mm) thick. The seeds vary in color from light to dark brown, often mottled or streaked with black. A black band rings the seed for about three-quarters of the way around the outside.

The seeds were used in ancient Hawai‘i for medicinal purposes, and were sometimes combined with other ingredients. A preparation made with taro corm (see Kalo) and the flesh of kā‘e‘e bean pods was used as a purgative that was said to be extremely strong.

Kā‘e‘e seeds were also strung into lei (see Kā‘e‘e in Seed Lei section, Chapter 3) and continue to be used for seed lei today. Keep an eye out for them while walking along Hawaiian beaches, especially near river mouths, as the seedpods commonly wash up on shore, providing a nice surprise to the casual beachcomber.

Kā‘e‘e grows from sea level to elevations of about 1,000 feet (300 m), often over shrubs, trees, and rocky areas near streams or near the ocean.

In the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xviii] this indigenous Hawaiian plant was classified as the species Mucuna gigantea. An update in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i[xix] reclassified the Hawaiian plant as the subspecies Mucuna gigantea subspecies gigantea.

[Photograph: Kā‘e‘e]

Kāpana (Phyllostegia grandiflora)

Endemic

Family: Lamiaceae—Mint Family

Kāpana is an endemic forest herb, resembling the typical mint with a square stem and lipped flowers, but kāpana lacks the minty fragrance. The plant has paired ovate leaves that are about 3.5 to 6.5 inches (9 to 16 cm) long and 1.2 to 2.5 inches (3 to 6.5 cm) wide.

Kāpana has fragrant, white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long. The flowers have a slightly curved tube that may show almost translucent-appearing pinkish colors.

Kāpana is a rainforest mint that prefers wet mid-elevation habitat, including montane forests and cloudy summits, from about 1,000 to 3,900 feet (300 to 1,200 m).

[Photograph: Kāpana]

Kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana)

Common Name: Hawaiian Dodder

Endemic

Family: Cuscutaceae—Dodder Family

Kauna‘oa is a wiry, thread-like, golden-orange to yellow-orange vine that twists and wraps around other plants. The kauna‘oa vine also has tiny round fruit capsules that hold small seeds, which are dark red in color. The plant’s tiny flowers are pointed, 5-lobed, and yellowish in color.

Kauna‘oa’s scientific genus name, Cuscuta, derives from the Greek kusku, which translates to “tangled twist of hair,” aptly describing the plant’s appearance.

Its species name, sandwichiana, refers to the Sandwich Islands, the original name given to the Hawaiian Islands by British Captain James Cook in honor of his patron, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich. Kauna‘oa is the official emblem of Lāna‘i (see Island Emblems, Chapter 3).

Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, kauna‘oa grows most commonly in coastal areas, though the plant is also found at elevations up to about 1,000 feet (300 m).

Kauna‘o is not green, and doesn’t need to photosynthesize because it gets its chlorophyll from other plants through sucker-like roots called haustoria. Kauna‘oa first roots in the ground and then attaches to other plants, parasitically thriving on the host plant.

Young kauna‘oa plants have small roots but these disintegrate as the plant matures, and then the plant survives completely off its host plant.

Host plants for kauna‘oa include āheahea (Chenopodium oahunense), pōhuehue (Ipomoea pes-caprae subspecies brasiliensis, beach morning glory), ‘uhaloa (Waltheria indica), ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa, Hawaiian hopseed bush), pōhinahina (Vitex rotundifolia, beach vitex), kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut) and others.

An ancient proverb states: “Kauna‘oa pālaha kukui o Kameha‘ikana” (“The kauna‘oa that spreads and flattens the kukui foliage of Kameha‘ikana.”), which was “said of kauna‘oa mālolo, which grows so thickly in some places that it covers the leaves of kukui and other trees.”[xx]

The stringy stems of kauna‘oa are often braided together into strands for orange-colored lei, as was done by ancient Hawaiians. (See Kauna‘oa in Island Flowers and Lei section, Chapter 3.) The kauna‘oa vine is said to be a gift from Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, who brought the plant to the Hawaiian Islands.

Ancient Hawaiians also had medicinal uses for kauna‘oa. A treatment for chest colds involved drinking a strained mash that included kauna‘oa, buds of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and the herb moa (Psilotum species).

Soon after drinking this mixture, vomiting was induced. Kauna‘oa was also mashed, mixed with water, and strained to provide a liquid to help women after childbirth.

[Photograph: Kauna‘oa]

Kāwa‘u (Ilex anomala)

Common Name: Hawaiian Holly

Indigenous

Family: Aquifoliaceae—Holly Family

A relatively common rainforest tree or shrub, kāwa‘u may grow 16 to 39 feet (5 to 12 m) tall, with thick, oval-shaped leaves that are about 1½ to 5 inches (4 to 12 cm) long and 4/5 to 2-1/3 inches (2 to 6 cm) wide.

The leaves of kāwa‘u are leathery, yet shiny on the upper surface (paler on the lower surface), and distinctively meshed with veins.

Kāwa‘u also produces small, white, waxy-looking flowers that have yellow centers and grow in panicles (branched inflorescences, or flower clusters), eventually maturing into pea-sized purplish-black fruits.

Kāwa‘u is found in bogs and mesic (moist) to wet forest areas of the Hawaiian Islands, most commonly at elevations between about 1,950 to 4,600 feet (600 to 1,400 m). Indigenous to the Hawaiian Islands, kāwa‘u is also native to the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti.

Kāwa‘u was used in ancient Hawai‘i for parts of canoes, as well as for fashioning the wooden kua kuku (kapa-beating anvils) used in the second stage beatings of the kapa (the first stage was typically done on a kua pōhaku (flat stone).

It should be noted that another native Hawaiian tree, Zanthoxylum dipetalum, (an endangered species) is also referred to as kāwa‘u, and was also used for making kapa-beating anvils. (See Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth, Chapter 3.)

[Photograph: Kāwa‘u)

Kikawaiō (Christella cyatheoides)

Endemic

Family: Thelypteridaceae—Maiden Ferns

Kikawaiō grows to a height of about 3-1/3 feet (1 m) with pinnate fronds (2 rows of leaflets) that may reach a length of up to 5 feet (1.5 m) and are subdivided once.

The fern’s fronds are dull green in color with whitish midrib and round spore clusters (sori). The lower stalk of kikawaiō is winged, and the pinnae have slightly serrated edges.

In ancient Hawai‘i, kikawaiō fronds were sometimes eaten raw as were the fern’s roots, which often were grated and salted. Similar to okra, kikawaiō may be a bit slimy.

Both the roots and fronds of kikawaiō had medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i. Kikawaiō was used medicinally in various ways, including as part of preparations for treating: chest congestion (see Hau); general debility (see Kukui); chest pains (see Mai‘a); and to help induce sleep (see ‘Uala).

Kikawaiō grows at elevations from about 600 to 4,000 feet (180 to 1,220 m), often in gulches and along valley floors.

[Photograph: Kikawaiō]

Koa (Acacia koa)

Endemic

Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family

The Polynesians that first settled in the Hawaiian Islands saw huge, strong trees growing in the mountains and named them koa, a word that comes from the Tahitian word toa, which means “strong.”

In Hawaiian, koa also means “brave,” or “fearless.” Koa trees may reach heights of more than 115 feet (35 m). An ancient proverb states: “E ola koa.” (“Live like a koa tree.”), which is explained to mean, “Live a long time, like a koa tree in the forest.”[xxi]

Koa grows best above the rainforest zone at around 5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,500 to 1,800 m) above sea level, or below the rainforest zone, but is not as prolific in the wettest areas. Koa’s typical range spans from elevations of about 160 to 6,700 feet (50 to 2,050 m). ‘Ōhi‘a lehua trees (Metrosideros species) commonly grow in mixed forests with koa.

Koa trees appear different depending upon where they are growing. In drier areas, koa grows shorter, with a thicker trunk and rougher bark. Koa trees in wetter areas grow much taller, with straighter trunks and smoother bark.

In large mountainside groves where koa grows tall and straight, the first branches of the tree may be more than 50 feet (15 m) high, and the tree may reach heights of more than 100 feet (30 m) with a trunk diameter of more than 10 feet (3 m). Koa’s bark is light gray and smooth on younger trees, but in older trees the bark becomes longitudinally furrowed.

Worldwide there are about 1,200 species in the genus Acacia, though only two, Acacia koa and Acacia koaia, are formally recognized as native (and endemic) to the Hawaiian Islands. Two distinguishable varieties of Acacia koa have been identified: A. koa sensu stricto and A. kauaiensis.

The Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xxii] recommended that these different Acacia varieties be considered subspecies (though formal subspecies status had not yet been recognized).

The Manual classified the tree referred to by the Hawaiian term koai‘e (a particularly hard-wooded species very similar to koa) as a variety of Acacia koa, but not a separate species or subspecies. The 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i, however, distinguishes Acacia koaia as a separate species.

Ancient Hawaiians considered the extremely hard wood of koai‘e (also called koai‘a) valuable for particular uses (see below). Koai‘e’s unique characteristics include a more gnarled trunk and narrower leaves than Acacia koa. Koai‘e (Acacia koaia) is found on Hawai‘i Island, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i and Maui, and is generally shorter than Acacia koa, and prefers drier, more open habitat.

A. kauaiensis is endemic to Kaua‘i, growing above 3,300 feet (1000 m), and usually shorter than A. koa sensu stricto. The wood of A. koaia is known to be significantly harder than other varieties, and was used in ancient Hawai‘i for kapa-beaters and other items requiring particularly hard wood. (See Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth, Chapter 3.)

Juvenile koa trees produce leaves with a fern-like lacy appearance similar to other non-Hawaiian Acacia species. Juvenile koa leaves consist of five to seven pairs of finely divided pinnae (branchlets).

There are between 13 and 24 pairs of leaflets on each pinna. These distinctive “true leaves” are only found on the very young trees and on older trees where the trees have been injured.

[Illustration: Comparison of infant koa tree leaves vs. mature koa leaves]

In mature koa trees, the leaves are sickle-shaped (crescent-shaped), and are actually not true leaves, but expanded flattened leafstalks (petioles), known botanically as phyllodes (flattened leaf stems). These phyllodes are elliptic in shape, and about 3 to 10 inches (7.5 to 26 cm) long and 1/3 to 1 inch (.5 to 2.5 cm) wide.

Koa’s small white or yellow-colored, pompom-like flowers sprout from the ends of the branches along with fruit that grows in the form of thin, flat pods. These pods are about 3 to 12 inches (8 to 30 cm) long and 1/3^rd to 1 inch (.8 to 2.5 cm) wide. The pods of Acacia koaia tend to be narrower, and the phyllodes straighter than the other varieties.

Traditional Uses of Koa

Koa was valued in ancient Hawai‘i not only because of its great strength, but also for the beautiful wavy grain of the hardwood. The color may vary from chocolate brown to orange-brown, reddish, or blond, with rich textural patterns that, when finished properly, may give the wood a 3-dimensional quality. Some koa is straight-grained.

In ancient times, koa wood was used to make jewelry, weapons, wooden carvings and many other items. The tree was also a symbol of strength, and a small koa tree was sometimes placed on the hula altar as a tribute to the hula goddess Laka. This was done to bring bravery and fearlessness to the hula dancer.

Koa was also used to make bowls (calabashes) for holding certain items, however not for food, since the tannic acid in koa wood imparts an unpleasant taste to food. Food bowls were made mostly from the wood of kou (Cordia subcordata), milo (Thespesia populnea, portia), and kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel).

Ancient Hawaiians used koa to make surfboards (papa he‘e nalu), some as long as 18 feet (5.5 m). Koa wood was also used to construct canoes as well as paddles.

A big koa tree in the forest would be chopped down and then carved out to make the canoe, which could be more than 70 feet (21 m) long and hold more than 70 people.

After Western contact, koa became the prized wood for making musical instruments such as the guitar and the ‘ukulele. Koa is also a primary food source for the caterpillar of the native Blackburn butterfly (Udara blackburni), one of just two native Hawaiian butterfly species.

[Illustration: Koa canoe]

Medicinal Uses of Koa

Ancient Hawaiians had numerous medicinal uses for koa, including using the ashes (likely from the burned leaves) as part of a mixture rubbed onto sores in a child’s mouth.

One ‘opihi (Cellana species) shell full of koa ashes was mixed with one ‘opihi shell full of ashes from a mature niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm), and this was mixed with the sap of four fruits of kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut). This preparation was given to sick infants that were between one-half to one year old.